Historical Overview of Ancient Dacia

Dacia can be defined geographically as the territory of modern-day Romania. During the Roman period (AD 106-271) the province of Dacia was somewhat restricted and did not include the westernmost portion of Romania, nor the area east of the Carpathian Mountains.

Human beings populated Dacia for tens of thousands of years, although the first significant cultural remains date to ca. 3000 BC. The best preserved Neolithic settlement is Habasesta in the modern region of Dobrigia (along the Black Sea). Celtic tribes known as the Hallstadt and La Tène Cultures entered Dacia around 1000 BC. Two centuries later, the Greeks began to establish ports along the Black Sea, including Histria, Tomis and Callastis. No foreign cultures extended inland until the late 6th century when the Persian king Darius campaigned in the Danube River valley.

The indigenous tribes, known as the Geto-Dacians, were independent, but probably formed political-military alliances when foreign cultures attempted to encroach into Geto-Dacian territory. Each tribe was based in a particular area of Dacia, but Sarmizegethusa (western Romania near Deva and Alba Iulia) appears to have been the principal political-religious center. This form of organization, which might be likened to that of contemporary Italic cultures, was successful throughout the Hellenistic period, even against Alexander the Great who crossed the Danube but was soon forced back to the southern bank of the river. In the mid 1st century BC Geto-Dacian tribes were united under a single leader, Burebista. Burebista conquered some of Dacia’s neighbors and was viewed as a threat to Rome, whose territory at this time extended to Macedonia and Asia Minor (Asia, Bithynia and Pontus). Julius Caesar planned to march on Dacia, but both he and Burebista were assassinated in 44 BC. Augustus believed that the Dacians were contained, but he was mistaken. In the course of the 1st century AD the Dacian tribes, whose union had dissolved with the death of Burebista, raided areas of Roman-controlled Moesia and Thrace.

The Dacians were united once again around AD 75 by a great warrior and leader, Decebalus, who consolidated Dacian territory and continued to raid areas to the south of the Danube. Decebalus was at first successful against the Romans – he defeated military forces under the emperor Domitian. But in the early 2nd century, Decebalus met his match. Between AD 101 and 106, the emperor Trajan led two military campaigns with as many as 100,000 soldiers. Trajan was ultimately victorious and Dacia was declared a province of the Roman Empire. Ulpia Traiana (Sarmizegethusa) was the capital city of Roman Dacia, while other major cities/military centers were Drobeta, Tibiscum, Apulum, Napoca and Porolissum. With the reorganization of Dacia in AD 124 under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into three provinces: Dacia Inferior, Dacia Superior and Dacia Porolissensis.

The degree of Romanization was extensive and began with the settling of Roman soldiers, merchants, miners, craftsmen and farmers throughout Dacia. Initially, many Dacians were forced into slavery or brutalized by the Romans; some Dacians fled north into “Free Dacia” or committed suicide. But many Dacians eventually adapted to Roman ways. When not engaged in military skirmishes or policing, Roman soldiers constructed roads, bridges and aqueducts, as well as public buildings, such as temples. After about a generation Romans and native Dacians enjoyed a relatively peaceful coexistence. What had been established as Roman military outposts developed into towns and cities. In addition to private activities, such as farming or trade, Dacians were soon allowed to hold important military and administrative posts. In AD 212 the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all free-born people living within the Roman Empire.

As a result of increased threats from nomadic tribes from the northeast, the emperor Aurelian decided to withdraw Roman administration from Dacia in AD 271. Many deep-rooted Romans chose to remain in Dacia and there is strong archaeological evidence that the inhabitants of the former Roman province maintained economic contacts with Rome well into the 5th century AD. Portions of Dacia were overrun by barbarian tribes, including the Huns (4th and 5th centuries) the Avari (6th century) the Slavs and the Bulgarians (7th century). Most affected by these invasions were the southern and coastal areas of Dacia, while the area of modern-day Transylvania, protected by the Carpathian Mountains, were largely untouched.