Historical Overview of Ancient Dacia

Dacia can be defined geographically as the territory comprising the Transylvanian and Vallachian regions of modern-day Romania. Human beings have populated the region of Dacia for tens of thousands of years, although the first significant cultural remains date to ca. 3000 BC. The third and second millennia BC are characterized by small settlements consisting of oblong huts or houses constructed of perishable material (wood, thatch, clay). Most sites are located along river valleys in southern and eastern Romania. Nearly all artifacts are of a funerary or religious nature and include terracotta and stone figurines, painted pottery and, later, metal objects – jewelry, weapons, ingots.  The best preserved Neolithic settlement is Habasesti in the region of Dobrogea (near the Black Sea).

Major socio-political changes occurred around 1200 BC. The ensuing period (ca. 1200-500 BC) is characterized by larger and wealthier settlements, greater social stratification and the introduction of new types of artifacts and artistic motifs. This phase is often referred to as the Hallstatt period which designates a group of Celtic tribes whose influence spread over much of central Europe at this time. The later Hallstatt period witnessed the arrival of Greek colonists who established ports along the Black Sea, including Histria, Tomis and Callatis. No foreign cultures extended inland until the late 6th century when the Persian king Darius campaigned in the Danube River valley.

Around 500 BC another significant shift in socio-political organization occurred. Archaeologists discuss the La Tène culture during the period ca. 500 BC-AD 101/06. This late Iron Age culture, frequently referred to as the Geto-Dacians, was organized in independent tribes which formed political-military alliances when foreign cultures attempted to encroach into Geto-Dacian territory. Each tribe was based in a particular settlement and controlled the small surrounding territory. It appears that Sarmizegethusa, in western Romania near Deva and Alba Iulia, served as the principal political-religious center where tribal leaders met occasionally. Dacidava (Simleu Silvaniei) served as the chief northern center. The Geto-Dacians were even victorious over Alexander the Great, who crossed the Danube but was soon forced back to the southern bank of the river.

In the mid 1st century BC, Geto-Dacian tribes were united under a single leader, Burebista. Burebista conquered some of Dacia’s neighbors and was viewed as a threat to Rome, whose territory at this time extended to Macedonia and Asia Minor (Asia, Bithynia and Pontus). Julius Caesar planned to march on Dacia, but both he and Burebista were assassinated in 44 BC. Augustus believed that the Dacians would pose no threat to the Roman Empire. The emperor was mistaken and was forced to send Roman troops to the Black Sea region under the generals C. Cornelius Lentulus and S. Aelius Catus. In the course of the 1st century AD, independent Dacian tribes, whose union had dissolved with the death of Burebista, raided areas of Roman-controlled Moesia and Thrace.

The Dacians were united once again around AD 87 by a great military leader, Decebal, who consolidated Dacian territory and continued to attack areas to the south of the Danube. Decebal was at first successful against the Romans, defeating the military forces of the emperor Domitian. In the early 2nd century, however, Decebal met his match. Between AD 101 and 106, Trajan led two victorious military campaigns with as many as 100,000 soldiers. Colonia Ulpia Traiana (formerly Sarmizegethusa) was named the capital city of Roman Dacia, while other major cities/military centers were Drobeta, Tibiscum, Apulum, Napoca and Porolissum. With the reorganization of the Roman provinces in AD 124 under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into three provinces: Dacia Inferior, Dacia Superior and Dacia Porolissensis. An area to the north and west that the Romans did not annex was known as “Free Dacia”.

The degree of Romanization was extensive and began with the settling of Roman soldiers, merchants, miners, craftsmen and farmers throughout Dacia. Initially, many Dacians were forced into slavery or brutalized by the Romans; some Dacians fled into “Free Dacia”. But many Dacians eventually adopted Roman ways. When not engaged in military skirmishes or policing, Roman soldiers constructed roads, bridges and aqueducts, as well as public buildings, such as temples. After a generation or two Romans and native Dacians enjoyed a relatively peaceful coexistence. What had been established as Roman military outposts developed into towns and cities. In addition to private activities, such as farming or trade, Dacians were soon allowed to hold important military and administrative posts. In AD 212 the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all free-born people living within the Roman Empire.

In AD 271, the emperor Aurelian withdrew Roman administration from Dacia. The reasons for this action are not fully clear, but must have been related to the need for Roman troops in other, more hostile parts of the Empire, particularly in the East. Aurelian reigned during a very problematic time in Roman history – within half a century, between 235 and 284 AD, more than 25 Roman military leaders were proclaimed Emperor of Rome! Aurelian (AD 270-275) clearly relied upon his soldiers to maintain his power base. Moreover, in the 260’s AD the Visigoths stormed through areas of the Balkans in what is known as the Gothic Wars. They ultimately settled into the regions of the Black Sea and the lower Danube valley.

The next period presents further complexities. Following the Gothic Wars, there does not appear to have been significant military action between the Goths and the Romans until the late 4th century. In fact, the Goths served as a useful buffer between the reconsolidated Roman Empire and other Eurasian populations. The Visigoths in the Black Sea region and the Danube valley sought protection from Rome when the Huns invaded Europe, moving to the south of the Danube River in AD 376. After initially welcoming the Visigoths into Roman territory, the Romans neglected the Visigoths during a food shortage. Eventually the Visigoths revolted, leading to the Battle of Hadrianopolis in which the Roman emperor Valens was killed and a pair of Roman legions were routed. The Visigoths effectively took the territory of Moesia (modern Bulgaria). We do not know the fate of the Daco-Romans; however, a new culture appeared in the western portions of Dacia, the Gepids. When the Huns entered central Europe, the Gepids submitted and served the Huns in military encounters. Under Attila in the mid 5th century, much of the Gepid population was drawn westward in Attila’s campaigns against the Franks and Romans, but many Gepids remained in Dacia. The region was subsequently occupied by the Avars (6th century) and the Slavs (7th century).